How Search Engines Work

The Web would be virtually unusable if it were not for Search Engines – allowing us to quickly track down information on virtually any topic under the sun. Understanding how Search Engines work can allow you a much better chance of finding what you are looking for faster.

Search Engines grew out of the Information Retrieval field – which has been around ever since documents began to be digitised. Rather than a specific set of relatively similar documents in one company or organisation, however, Search Engines have to index pages in multiple formats, across millions of websites, with information changing by the minute. On top of this, they have to deal with the problem of webmasters trying to cheat the system to get their pages to the top of the rankings.

Search Engines are a kind of “know-where” – that is, they tell you where you are likely to find out about a certain topic. They don’t know the answer themselves.

The Index

Search Engines build up an index of the web, by sending out special programs – called Robots or Spiders – to jump from hyperlink to hyperlink to reveal all the pages on the Web. This index is updated all the time - pages that are considered more important are checked more frequently.

When you search for a word or phrase, the search engine looks through its index for pages that contain those words. It then lists the pages it finds in order of relevance – with the first item being the one most likely to contain what you are looking for.

If you and the search engine were having a conversation, it would go like this.

You: Hello Google. Can you please tell me where I might find out about “Titanic”

Google: I’ve looked in the index of all the pages I’ve visited. I’ve found out that there are 13,443,233 webpages that either contain the word “titanic” or that are probably related to the word. I think the most likely place is here (first page). Second is this place (second page)……. and this has the least chance of being what you are after (last page).

Search Engines never reveal the exact formula for how it ranks the pages, but some of the main considerations include:

• The title of the page
• How many times the phrase appears in the main text of the page
• If the phrase appears in bold on the page
• How many other pages link to the page
• The domain name of the website

Caching

Most search engines store a copy of the pages on their own servers – which is called the cache. This allows users to see the content of the page, even if the server it is stored on is down when they want to view it.

Top 6 Technologies That Are Revolutionizing How We Socially Connect

Today, more than ever, we’re sharing our lives with each other in both simple and profound ways. With the rise of social networks like Facebook, Twitter, and Pinterest, we can keep in touch with our existing friends or make completely new ones with just a few clicks of a button. Which technologies are advancing this idea even further? Today we’ll take a look at six of them. From the huge site that calls itself “the front page of the Internet” to an up-and-coming video sharing platform, these six are revolutionizing the way we socially connect.

6. Vine

If Instagram and Twitter had a child, it would look something like Vine. The mobile app lets users create and post quick, 6-second video clips and then share them on services like Twitter and Facebook. Founded in June 2012, the company was acquired only months later, in October, by Twitter. (When asked why he acquired Vine, Twitter CEO Dick Costolo said this “hyper-constrained publishing” is the “next best thing down the road.”) As of April 9, 2013, Vine has become the number one most downloaded free app in the Apple App Store. While many are trying to figure out how businesses are going to use Vine for advertising purposes or how Twitter could make money from their investment, early adopters are just having fun, sharing their short, entertaining clips with the world.

5. Sony VAIO Duo 11 Ultrabook™

The Sony VAIO Duo 11 Ultrabook is a touchscreen tablet and a full HD laptop in one. Its clever design includes a keyboard that’s hidden underneath the 11.6-inch screen. By sliding the screen up, one reveals the backlit keyboard. Running Windows 8, Microsoft’s latest and greatest operating system, the user is presented with a series of Live Tiles that horizontally stretch across the screen. For students or young professionals on the go, this sleekly designed hybrid acts like both a powerful tool and a fun toy. Not only is it fast with lots of storage space, by running Windows 8, it lets you connect to people, apps, folders, photos and websites in a quick and seamless way.

4. Facebook Home

If you’re a person who uses your smartphone mostly for checking your Facebook feed, you must have been excited when you first heard about Facebook Home. Launched in early April, the new user interface replaces the standard Android homescreen giving you a full-blown Facebook experience. From the moment you turn on your phone, you’ll see what your friends are doing, from their posts to their photos. Through this software you can also send and receive text and Facebook messages all in one place or chat with friends while you’re using other apps. Current Android users can install Facebook Home for free right now on the Google Play Store or you can pick up a HTC First to see Home built right in. While critics are still trying to decide if Home is a hit or a miss, one thing is certain, there’s never been a mobile device that could be this social.

3. Google Plus

Photo credit: Trey Ratcliff

It’s finally time to believe that Google Plus is a verified hit. When it first launched, in the summer of 2011, tens of millions of people quickly signed up, and then it seemed to have lost its luster. According to Internet analytics firm GlobalWebIndex, Google Plus, however, has been silently gaining momentum, continuing to outpace Twitter as the world’s number two social network only behind Facebook. Throughout the past few years, Google Plus has carved out its own niche. It’s now widely regarded as a place where strangers can connect over shared interests like photography. With the most hyped about gadget on the horizon, Google Glass, we’ve yet to see what this social network can really do.

2. Instagram

Last April, when Facebook announced that they had purchased the photo sharing social network Instagram for a whopping $1 billion, many were shocked by the exorbitant price. While at the time of purchase, Instagram had about 30 million users, today there’s more than 100 million monthly active users posting more than 40 million photos a day. Celebrities and brands have jumped in head first, as they see it as an important place to visually market themselves. Just recently, Instagram launched a new feature that allows users to “tag” photos. Called “Photos of You,” the feature is similar to tagging your friends on Facebook. It will be rolled out on May 16.

1. Reddit

Ask anyone on the Internet which website they think has the most influence right now and more often than not they’ll say Reddit. The user-generated news link site has been grabbing headlines these days for doing everything from getting President Obama to participate in an AMA (“ask me anything) to contributing to the most crowdsourced terror investigation in American history (over the Boston Marathon bombers). In 2012, Reddit had more than 37 billion pageviews and 400 million unique visitors. More than its incredible numbers, Reddit wields incredible power as people from all walks of life flock to the site to share and read some highly personal and often inspiring stories.

Which of these technologies do you use?

Source: Forbes

Authors: Alice Yoo / My Modern Met

Sectoral Dimensions of Resource Diversification for Sustainable Economic Development in Nigeria: The Role of the Librarian Part I

Nigeria’s economic aspirations have remained that of altering the structure of production and consumption patterns, diversifying the economic base and reducing dependence on oil, with the aim of putting the economy on a part of sustainable, all-inclusive and non-inflationary growth. The implication of this is that while rapid growth in output, as measured by the real gross domestic product (GDP), is important, the transformation of the various sectors of the economy is even more critical. This is consistent with the growth aspirations of most developing countries, as the structure of the economy is expected to change as growth progresses.

Successive governments in Nigeria have since independence in 1960, pursued the goal of structural changes without much success. The growth dynamics have been propelled by the existence and exploitation of natural resources and primary products. Initially, the agricultural sector, driven by the demand for food and cash crops production was at the centre of the growth process, contributing 54.7 per cent to the GDP during the 1960s.  The second decade of independence saw the emergence of the oil industry as the main driver of growth.  Since then, the economy has mainly gyrated with the boom-burst cycles of the oil industry. Government expenditure outlays that are dependent on oil revenues have more or less dictated the pace of growth of the economy. Looking back, it is clear that the economy has not actually performed to its full potential particularly in the face of its rising population.

In general, economic growth and population growth rates are very close that the margin cannot induce the required structural transformation and economic diversification.  The Nigerian economy has grossly underperformed relative to her enormous resource endowment and her peer nations. It has the 6^th largest gas reserves and the 8^th largest crude oil reserves in the world. It is endowed in commercial quantities with about 37 solid mineral types and has a population of over 160 million persons.  Yet economic performance has been rather weak and does not reflect these endowments.  Compared with the emerging Asian countries, notably, Thailand, Malaysia  , China, India and Indonesia that were far behind Nigeria in terms of GDP per capita in 1970,  these countries have transformed their economies and are not only miles ahead of Nigeria, but are also major players on the global economic arena. Indeed, Nigeria’s poor economic performance, particularly in the last forty years, is better illustrated when compared with China which now occupies an enviable position as the second largest economy in the world. In 1970, while Nigeria had a GDP per capita of US$233.35 and was ranked 88^th in the world, China was ranked 114^th with a GDP per capita of US$111.82.

The major factors accounting for the relative decline of the country’s economic fortunes are easily identifiable as political instability, lack of focused and visionary leadership, economic mismanagement and corruption. Prolonged period of military rule stifled economic and social progress, particularly in the three decades of 1970s to 1990s. During these years, resources were plundered, social values were debased, and unemployment rose astronomically with concomitant increase in crime rate. Living standards fell so low, to the extent that some of the best brains with the requisite skills to drive the developmental process left in droves to other nations, and are now making substantial contributions to the economic success of their host countries.

However, since 1999, the country returned to the path of civil democratic governance and has sustained uninterrupted democratic rule for a period of over 11 years. This in itself is a great achievement and gives reason for hope in a country that has been burdened with almost three decades of military rule. It has provided an opportunity to arrest the decline of the past and provide the launch pad for the take-off into an era of sustainable and all-round economic development. The successive civilian administrations since 1999 have committed to tackling the daunting challenges. Economic growth has risen substantially, with annual average of 7.4 per cent in the last decade.  But the growth has not been inclusive, broad-based and transformational. Agriculture and services have been the main drivers of growth. The implication of this trend is that economic growth in Nigeria has not resulted in the desired structural changes that would make diversification of the economy create employment, promote technological development and induce poverty alleviation. Available data has put the national poverty level at 54.4 per cent.  Similarly, there has been rising unemployment with the current level put at 19.7 per cent by the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS). Furthermore, the country lags behind her peers in most human development indicators. For example, while China and Thailand are on the 5^th and 22^nd positions, respectively, on the 2009 Global Hunger Index, Nigeria was ranked 46^th.  This can be traced largely to the huge infrastructure deficit, rising insecurity, mass corruption and widespread poverty. 

Why is Information Valuable to us?

We all recognize that information is valuable – if you've ever paid for a newspaper or magazine, you have demonstrated this. But why – specifically – is information valuable, and why is one piece of information more valuable than another?

There are three ways information can be valuable to us….

1.       It entertains us

2.       It helps us make better decisions

3.       It helps someone else make better decisions, and we can exchange this information for something else

Entertainment Value

We pay for films, music and video games. While some movies and song lyrics do help us think about issues in our lives, we generally use them for short-term entertainment. We value them because they give us pleasure. They change the way we feel.

Generally, the more pleasure they give us, the more we are likely to value them.

Decision-Making Value

A lot of the information we seek out and deal with – particular in a working environment – is really about helping us make the right decisions.

•        You may have a Satellite Navigation system in your car to help you decide when to turn left and right on the road

•        You have a phone book so you can decide which numbers to press on your phone to call a friend

•        You look at the message boards at the Airport to decide which gate you need to go to for your flight

•        You check the weather report on Friday morning to decide whether to call off the barbecue you've got planned for the weekend

•        You look at your car’s speedometer to decide when to stop accelerating as     you've reached the speed limit

All of these examples show how this information is really about helping us make better decisions.

If we don’t use information, we can only base our decisions on what we receive directly through our five senses, or from what we already know.

The more significant the decisions we are making, the more we will value the information that helps us make the right decisions.

Exchange Value

The third source of information value comes from the fact that we often acquire information not because it either entertains or helps us make the right decisions, but because we know it will entertain or help other people make the right decisions in their lives. We can then exchange this information with them for something of value to us. We can think of this as information’s trade ability value.

Most information workers do exactly this. The reports that we produce at work are often just to help someone else make a better decision. We exchange this information for our wages.

It can involve the information being exchanged several times before it eventually reaches the decision maker, so it is not always obvious that it is about decision making – sometimes you may think you are just producing reports for the sake of it.

As with the decision-making aspect of information, the more significant the decision the other person is making – and the more the information you are providing will help them make a better decision – the more they will value the information you have to offer.

The exchange value doesn't necessarily have to involve money. It could also apply to conversations we have. We keep up with news, current affairs and celebrity gossip not because they directly affect us, but because it gives us something to talk to others about.

Combining

Most information we come across contains a mixture of these three sources of value – a novel may be entertaining, but it also teaches us about morals, and it also gives us something to talk to our friends about.

Qualifying an Information Source

When someone sees a piece of information, the first decision that they make is “Should I look at this further, or move onto something else.” This is the qualification phase.

This applies to the subject line of an e-mail, the title of a poster, the headline of a newspaper article, etc.

In this qualification phase, we ask such questions as:

•        Does this affect me?

•        How important is this?

•        Can it wait until later?

•        Would this be of interest to someone else I know?

This phase is critical to how we control information overload. When you browse through a newspaper or magazine, if you were to read every single article and advert, you would simply not be able to cope with a daily newspaper.

When producing an Information source, you should not get arrogant and assume that everyone should read it. Instead, try to make it as simple as possible for the people who are not likely to need it to come to that conclusion. In other words, it’s often just as important to help people disqualify a piece of information as it is to get the right people’s attention.

You need to help them make that decision as quickly as possible. This is why you should never use “Important” or “Urgent” as single-word e-mail subject lines, or as headlines on posters and notices, because it doesn’t help them do this.

When you use terms such as these, people simply start ignoring you –Just because something is important or Urgent in your opinion, doesn’t make it so to other people.

The Eight Must-Have Skills for Information Workers

By

Owabor C. Emmanuel.

Owabor.e@gmail.com

These days, a high proportion of the population of developed countries are employed as information workers. That is, they don’t produce physical goods, but instead spend their time creating, developing, sharing and consuming information.

As a general rule, if you have a computer on your desk at work, you are an information worker. The chances are, you’ll also use e-mail a lot of the time, and have access to the Web.

Because desktop computers crept into our work-lives slowly, there was never a point where the corporate World stood up and said “right, everyone to the training room!” Instead, people often have had to learn the generic skills necessary to be an information worker themselves through trial and error.

Many of these can be considered Soft IT Skills – you are unlikely to go on a specific course to learn them unless that is your specialty  but those that develop even a few of these can see dramatic improvements in their productivity and career.

I would like to outline what I believe are the 8 “must-have” skills for information workers. Most people have a basic grasp of all of these, but each can be improved significantly.

•        Ability to find things online

•        Ability to determine the accuracy of what they read

•        Communications

•        WIMP interface

•        Office programs

•        File management

•        Security and Access

•        Managing Your Attention

Ability to find things online

Most people use a small fraction of the capabilities of search engines, limiting themselves to two or three-word phrases. Understanding the shortcuts, advanced features and how search engines actually work can allow you to find almost anything online… within seconds.

Other research resources – such as Wikipedia – can also be used, but an understanding of when and how to use these is needed (see the next skill).

Ability to Determine Authority

As it becomes easier and easier for anyone to publish things online, without having to get permission or approval, the Web is full of (sometimes dangerously) inaccurate information.

Being able to cross-reference things, and separating fact from opinion.

Communications

E-mail is the communication medium most talked about. From the basics like sending and receiving, to more advanced issues like understanding how to minimise SPAM.

Also, Instant Messaging (IM), Voice-over-Internet-Protocols (VOIP – e.g. Skype), Message Boards.

Understanding the benefits and disadvantages of synchronis and asynchronis technologies.

WIMP Interface

The “Windows, Icons, Mouse and Pointer” system that has been standard across Windows, Apple and Linux computers since the late 1980’s. This replaced the old command-line interface as the main way to access your files.

Also, how you change your desktop and computer settings.

Office programs

The big three are Word Processing, Presentation and Spreadsheets. Not only how to create files in the these formats, but also how to integrate and pass information between them.

File Management

From filetypes (e.g. Word documents end in .doc, photos end in .jpg) to backing up files. Understanding that not every computer can read every format, and the reciever may need additional software installed to read particular formats.

Security and Access

This falls into two categories – technical security (e.g. computer Viruses, Firewalls, etc) and information security (e.g. sending confidential reports via e-mail, dealing with third-parties, access to personal information).

Managing Your Attention

With the exponential increase in the amount of information available over the past decade, the ability to decide what to pay attention to is now more important than ever. Being able to manage the use of the Web, so that you don’t spend all day browsing sites. Being able to stay focused on information directly related to your job, while filtering out the rest.

Exploitation and Exploration of Solid Minerals For the Socio _ Economic Development of Nigeria: A Case Study of Kano State

1.1  Background to the Study

          The development of man is characterized by the quest to harness the abundant   resources nature has bestowed upon him. Thus he interacts with his environment in numerous but dynamic ways. Nations have also continued to identify those factors that militate against their development with a view to proffering enduring solutions. The dynamic nature of the human environment further necessitates continuous study in order to keep pace with changes in human nature.

          The successful accounts of socio - economic advancement within the EU, the USA and the Asian countries could however not to be replicated with most African countries especially Nigeria, this lack of development is not for want of resources. Nigeria is not exempted from these socio – political and economic disorders. The nation has moved from agro- based to a mono – cultural economy. The consequent over dependence on oil has affected other sectors of the economy and by extension, the socio- economic well – being of Nigerians. Thus the present political dispensation was preceded by hopes for improvement.

Nigeria is endowed with about thirty four (34) abundant mineral resources, which could contribute immensely to the national wealth with associated socio-economic benefits. (Adekoya,2003). The development of the mineral sector, particularly the solid mineral sector or any other sector of the economy, promotes economic activities through investment, employment of resources, increased output, and enlarged aggregate demand. With respect to solid minerals, coal was discovered in 1906 and its mining started in 1916 (Ugwu, 1996.63).

Indeed, mining could be one of Nigeria’s major success stories. However, it has been plagued by the same factors that undermine the country’s potential generally such as deteriorating infrastructure, uncertain government policies and overdependence on oil. Given the huge amounts of capital required by mining operations and the long-term nature of its projects, investors cannot be blamed for thinking twice about putting their money into the sector.

Before oil became the mainstay of the economy in the mid-1970s, solid minerals and agricultural commodities accounted for almost all of the country’s exports. The tin mines of the central plateau region around the city of Jos, and the coal mines around the southern city of Enugu had been opened up by the late 19th Century. But tin production is now down to a trickle, while coal exports slumped from a peak of 3.2 million tonnes a year in the 1970s to nothing within two decades as successive administrations shifted to the oil boom of the 1970s and early1980s.

Proven reserves of good quality coal, low in sulphur and ash are put at about 2.75 billion tones according to Federal Office of Statistics (2003). Deposit of iron ore is estimated to exceed three billion tones. Bitumen reserves put at over four billion tones are nearly double the known reserve crude oil. The deposits of gold and other gemstones, including sapphire, aquamarine, emeralds, topaz, tourmaline, citrine, amethyst. are said to occur in viable commercial quantities in different parts of the country. In addition, there are industrial minerals, such as barites, bitumen, kaolin, gypsum, salt and iron ore, among others that could bring substantial foreign earnings for the country. All the states in Nigeria are endowed with abundant solid minerals including Kano State.

 Kano State is endowed with bountiful solid mineral resources some of which are in commercial quantities which can be exploited and utilized for industrial purpose as well as a means of earning foreign exchange. A comprehensive geological survey of some parts of the state was initiated by the State Government in conjunction with experts, with a view to ascertaining the availability and commercial quantities of solid minerals existing in the State. The Riruwai mining area in Doguwa Local Government has large deposits of columbite, granite, copper, zinc, lead and uranium. There are evidences of Gold, Quartz, Kaolin, and Mica in Sumaila, Karaye and Shanono Local Government areas. There are also vast deposits of Silica sand in Makoda Local Government certified to be one of the finest in the world for glass making.

1.2      Statement of the Research Problem

In the light of the poor performance of the economy since independence, despite the huge solid mineral deposits, the sector is yet to be fully exploited in the face of vast opportunities that investors can exploit, 51 years after Nigeria’s independence, the solid mineral sector is yet to be harnessed as part of resource diversification in Nigeria.

A combination of unfavourable government policy, changing country circumstances and poor management of state owned enterprises have led to a precipitous decline in the solid mineral  sector and a situation in which little or no new investment in mineral exploration and development, either foreign nor domestic, could be attracted. The scale of this decline is clearly illustrated in the drastic reduction in its sectorial contribution to GDP from 5.62% in 1980 to 0.16% in 2007(NBS, 2003)

  Currently, there are no medium or large scale mining operations in Kano State and Nigeria. Most active mining in Kano State is being undertaken by small entrepreneurs and artisans, working deposits of precious, semi-precious, construction and industrial minerals that are not licensed. In fact, they operate outside the parameters of the licenses held. Consequently, the mining sector remains in a state of stagnation in Kano State. Although, appreciable progress has been made in recent years, with regard to legal and regulatory reforms, nevertheless several limitations to growth through sustainable exploitation of mineral resources still exist.

Though efforts are being made through legislation and policy development to address the issues, the problem of exclusive right by the Federal Government and how to implement regulations of illegal mining has remained the bane of limitations of mineral exploitation in Kano State for socio - economic development.

1.3     Research Questions

The following research questions will be addressed:

a.     What is the state of solid mineral resource exploitation in Kano State?

b.     How has the exploitation of solid mineral resources exploitation enhanced the socio-economic development of Kano State?

c.      What are the challenges facing the solid mineral resources exploitation in Kano State?

d.     What recommendations and implementation strategies can be proffered to enhance solid mineral resource exploitation for the socio-economic development of Kano State.

1.4     Aim and Objectives of the Study

The aim of this study is to examine how the exploitation of solid mineral resources can contribute to socio - economic development of Nigeria using Kano State as a case study with a view to making recommendations and proffering implementation strategies.

a.     to examine the state of solid mineral resource exploitation in Kano State.

b.     to assess how the exploitation of solid mineral resources has affected the socio-economic development of Kano State.

c.      to identify the challenges facing the exploitation of solid mineral resources in Kano state.

d.     to proffer recommendations and implementation strategies that could enhance solid mineral resource development in Nigeria

1.5    Scope

The study is focused on Kano State from the period 1999 to 2012 which is the period the country returned to the civil democratic governance and has sustained an uninterrupted democratic rule for over a period of 13 years. It examined the state of solid mineral exploitation in Nigeria with particular focus on Kano State. The study has also identified the challenges facing the sector and what legal instrument has been put in place to manage solid mineral exploitation and proffer way(s) for addressing the problems.

1.6  Limitations of the Study

There were basically three limitations encountered during this research work: Security, Kano State had experienced one of the worse security challenges in its history and this has to do with the Boko Haram quagmire in the state. Freedom of movement within the metropolis was a big challenge throughout the period of the study. Secondly, materials to aid a smooth undertaken of the project were scarce. Even in the Bayero University Library and relevant ministries one could hardly obtain any documents on the subject matter. The two limitations mentioned above gave rise to the third dimension which is time frame. The security challenge and dearth of materials/documents on the subject matter prolonged the already limited time. However, newspapers, the internet, published and unpublished documents came to the rescue.

1.7     Significance/Policy Relevance of the Study

The need to effectively and efficiently exploit solid mineral resources for the socio-economic development of Kano State and Nigeria in general cannot be overemphasized. This study will provide policymakers with options for managing the prolonged dependence on oil resources as the main stay in Nigeria. The study will also provide materials and motivate practitioners in Kano State on how to address small scale mineral exploration in the state. It will also, provide an avenue for scholars  in solid mineral resource sector to embark on further research on this area, particularly from the point of view that would enhance the development of better management of the state’s mineral resources and that of the  national economy.  Furthermore, it will add and fill the gap in   existing literature on the subject matter. In addition, it is pertinent to note that the challenge of resource diversification for sustainable economic development in Nigeria involves both lateral and structural process of economic transformation. Lateral diversification entails the exploitation of alternative resources to crude oil such as solid minerals and agriculture (CBN, Contemporary Economic Policy Issues, 2003) .This is referred to as diversification among products. For solid minerals, these include Bentonite, Barite, Limestone, Bitumen, Gypsum, Quartz, Tantalite, Phosphate, Mica, Granite Stones, Kaolin etc. Both for domestic, industrial use and export markets. Theses crucial strategic minerals provide necessary raw materials for whole range of import/substitution industries thus, sustaining the production capabilities (capacity utilization) of these industries in a declining condition of foreign exchange reserve. There is yet another diversification dimension in lateral diversification which is within a particular product itself. For example there are many bye-products of palm produce which include: Production of palm oil, palm kennel oil, oleo chemicals, palm kennel cake, wooden products, biodiesel, pharmaceuticals, motor parts, cosmetics among others.

          On the other hand, structural diversification addresses the imperative for massive deployment of resources for economic development through industrial enterprises. As E. C Obioma and Uche Ozughalu explained “rapid economic development involves rapid technological transformation. Rapid technological transformation in a nutshell implies rapid industrialization”. This is more explicitly explained if one considers Singapore for instance which exports petroleum products without crude oil as an endowment and yet is one of the largest exporters of petroleum products. While India and Israel, are largest exporters of diamond without an equally endowed raw material for the production of diamond.   

1.8     Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework adopted in this study is the development and dependency theory using the Sustainable Livelihood Approach (SL): by the Brundtland Commmision The SL construct has emerged as "the integration of population, resources, environment and development in four aspects: stabilising population; reducing migration; fending of core exploitation; and supporting long term sustainable resource management. The Brundtland Commission developed it as an integrating concept. Livelihood meaning adequate stock and flows of food and cash to meet basic needs; security refers to secure ownership of, or access to, resources  to meet contingencies and sustainable refers to the maintenance or enhancement of resource productivity in the long term (McCraken, J. Pretty J.(1998). Adaptive strategies and capacities generate and maintain means of living and enhance well-being and that of future generations. (Titti & Singh, 1995)  They represent permanent change in community strategy, and structure, organisational processes; these capacities are contingent upon availability, stability and accessibility of options, which are ecological, socio-cultural, economic and political. They are predicated on equity, ownership of resources and participatory wise decision-making - notions of Sustainable Human Development (SHD) and SL that incorporate the idea of change and uncertainty.

The study prefers this theory because it provided an option that truly illustrates the exploitative nature of the developed countries to the less developed country (LCD) which led to dependency. That is to bring to light whether, Nigeria economy is developing, developed or underdeveloped; factors that are responsible for these stages or types of development. This is because, in spite of her God given mineral wealth and good climatic weather, the country is yet to get out of underdevelopment trap.

1.9     Methodology

Survey methods were employed in collecting data for this study. For the primary source questionnaires and in-depth interview method were used. The views of stakeholders such as practitioners in solid minerals exploitation in Kano State, relevant ministries and agencies in charge of solid mineral exploitation were explored. The Secondary source was drawn from both published and unpublished material such as books, journal articles, newspapers, seminar papers, memoirs and extensive use of the Internet. The study used random sampling method and technique for the selection of respondents for the research.

Results from research findings were analysed using qualitative method and generalisation was made based on the findings. In some instances simple percentage were used for the analysis.

1.10   Definitions of Terms

1.10.1 Minerals

Minerals may be defined as naturally occurring substances derived from the earth’s crust and upper mantle which are of value to man. They include such broad groups as ferrous, non-ferrous and non-metallic substances. By simple elimination, therefore, solid minerals cover all such substances excluding crude oil, gas and water (Committee on National Policy on Solid Minerals (CNPSM), 1995: 4). Examples of solid minerals are given in the following classification.

1.10.2 Development

Development is an integrated process of expansion of substantive freedom. Economic growth, technological advancement and political change are all to be judged in the light of their contributions to the expansion of human freedoms. Among the most important of these freedoms are freedom from famine and malnutrition, freedom from poverty, access to health care and freedom from premature mortality. (Sen, 1999),

1.10.3 Socio-Economic Development:

Socio – economic Development embraces change taking place in social and economic spheres, mostly of an economic nature. Even though economic aspect comes to the fore in the research on changes in the economy they cannot be isolated from social aspects. Hence, a more apt term for the change and development is change and socio – economic development combining the two aspects. Chojincki, (2010).

1.11 Organization of the Study

The study is organized under five chapters. Chapter one is the general introduction comprising background information, statement of the problem, aim and objectives of the study, research questions, scope of the study, significance of the study, and organization of  chapters. Chapter two is a review of related literature. Chapter three will examine the history and background of solid mineral exploitation in Nigeria, legal instruments, the challenges and the development of solid mineral resources in Kano state.  Chapter four will discuss and analyse the level of exploitation of solid mineral resources and socio – economic development in Kano State while chapter five presents the conclusion, recommendations and implementation strategies for the study